Quantification of Venlafaxine in Tablet Dosage Form

Quantification of Venlafaxine in Tablet Dosage Form New chiral normal phase UFLC method for determination of venlafaxine hydrochloride enantiomers in pharmaceutical formulations ABSTRACT Aim: A simple, specific, precise, sensitive and rapid normal phase-UFLC method was developed for determination of venlafaxine hydrochloride enantiomers in pharmaceutical formulation. Methodology: The method was developed on a Lux amylase 2 column (150 x 4.0 mm I.D., particle size 5 ÃŽ ¼); the mobile phase was n-hexane and ethanol (97:3 v/v); in 0.1%diethyamine using UV detector was fixed at 254 nm with a flow rate was 1 mL/min. Results: The retention time (tR) of R- venlafaxine hydrochloride and S- venlafaxine hydrochloride were found to be 4.5 ±0.2 min and 5.3 ±0.3 min, respectively. The linearity over the concentration range of 5-30  µg mL-1 for venlafaxine. The intra-day and inter-day coefficient of variation of the assay method were found to be 0.293 to 1.760 and 0.319 to 0.210 respectively, with high accuracy and precision results. The proposed NP-UFLC method is suitable for analysis of venlafaxine hydrochloride enantiomers in pharmaceutical dosage forms. Conclusion: The validated NP-UFLC method was developed for the quantification of venlafaxine in tablet dosage form. Keywords: R-venlafaxine hydrochloride, S-venlafaxine hydrochloride, enantiomers, NP-UFLC, Validation INTRODUCTION Venlafaxine is a second-generation antidepressant drug marketed as a racemic mixture (Figure 1). The R-enantiomer exhibits dual presynaptic inhibition of serotonin and noradrenaline uptake, whereas the S-enantiomer is a serotonine reuptake inhibitor. Thus, the drug is the first and most commonly used serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor. Its synthesis and that of several analogues were described many years ago. The synthetic routes are similar and vary according to the nature of the aromatic substituents. However, the final products are racemic mixtures, and they were crystallized as hydrochlorides.[1] Although the disposition of venlafaxine in humans was originally found not to be stereoselective.[2] In view of the near expiration date (June 2008) of the first patent for the racemic compound and of these recent clinical findings, venlafaxine appears to be a good candidate for a chiral switch.[3-4] Figure 1: Molecular structure of Venlafaxine The trend toward single enantiomer drugs is clear and the number of racemic drugs that reach the market as new chemical entities is decreasing.[5] The relevance of chirality in antidepressant drugs was highlighted several years ago and many examples are illustrated in a recent very complete review.[6-7] In the previously cited research on the resolution of venlafaxine, the enantiomers were separated by either of two general approaches. The first is the classical method of diastereoisomeric salt formation and fractional crystallization and the second approach uses analytical enantioselective electro driven methods. In the latter cases, either cyclodextrinsin capillary electrophoresis.[8] There is only one literature report where an HPLC baseline separation of the enantiomers of venlafaxine extracted was achieved using a CSP and normalphase mode.[9] From an analytical point of view, enantioselective chromatography offers the advantages of a method that can be developed on a semiprepara tive or preparative scale for the isolation of single enantiomers, which then become available for pharmaceutical testing strategies and requirements for enantioselective.[10] In the present research work, a simple, sensitive and accurate normal phase UFLC method to separate R and S-enantiomer of venlafaxine in bulk drugs and tablets using Lux amylase 2 column column has been reported for first time. The method was also validated to ensure the compliance in accordance with the ICH guidelines. MATERIALS AND METHODS Chemicals and Reagents: Venlafaxine hydrochloride enantiomers were a gift sample from R N FINE CHEMICALS BANGALURU, India. The solvents like n-hexane and ethanol diethylamine used was of HPLC grade (Merck, India). Commercially available racemic venlafaxine hydrochloride tablets claimed to contain 25mg of drug were procured from local market. Instrumentation: Quantitative NP-UFLC was performed on gradient high pressure liquid chromatography (Shimadzu) auto sampler consisting of a LC–20HT solvent module, SPD– 10A, and an PDA detector with LC software. The column used was LUX amylase 2 chiral column(150 x 4.0 mm ) particle size 5 ÃŽ ¼. UFLC conditions: The composition of the mobile phase was n-hexane and ethanol in the ratio of 97:03 v/v. They were filtered before use through a 0.2 mm membrane filter, degassed in a bath sonicator for 10 min. The mobile phase was pumped from the solvent reservoir to the column at a flow rate of 1mL/min, which yielded a column backpressure of 96 kg/cm2. The run time was set at 20 min and column temperature was ambient. The volume of injection loop was 20 mL. prior to injection of drug solutions, the column was equilibrated for at least 30 min with the mobile phase flowing through the system. The eluents were monitored at 254 nm and data was acquired, stored and analyzed with the LC 10 software. REAGENTS USED Mobile phase n-hexane and ethanol of HPLC grade was taken as mobile phase in the ratio of 97:3 % (v/v). Preparation of standard stock solution Standard stock solution (100  µg mL-1) of Venlafaxine hydrochloride was prepared by weighing exactly 10 mg of drug dissolved in isopropanol and diluted to 100 mL with same solvent. Preparation of calibration curve Aliquots of Venlafaxine hydrochloride ranging from 0.5-3 mL (each mL contains 100  µg mL-1) were pipetted into as a series of 10mL volumetric flasks. The volume was made up to the mark at with isopropanol. Aliquoets of 10 µL was injected (six time) into HPLC. The elution of the drug measured at 254.0 nm. The amount of venlafaxine hydrochloride present in the sample solution was computed from its calibration curve and it was constructed by plotting peak area of chromatogram against the concentration of Venlafaxine hydrochloride. The blank chromatogram and standard drug chromatogram were shown in figure 2 and 3 respectively. Linearity was 5.0-30  µg mL-1 for Venlafaxine hydrochloride was shown in figure 4. Figure 2: Blank chromatogram Figure 3: Standard Chromatogram of venlafaxine enantiomer Figure 4: Calibration curve of venlafaxine hydrochloride ANALYSIS OF TABLET DOSAGE FORM Five tablets (EFFEROX), each containing 25 mg of venlafaxine hydrochloride were weighed and finely powdered. Powder equivalent to 125 mg of venlafaxine hydrochloride was weighed and transferred to a standard volumetric flask. The contents were mixed thoroughly and filtered through a 0.45 ÃŽ ¼m membrane filter. 10 ÃŽ ¼L of the sample was injected in to UFLC system for the analysis. The peak profile and peak purity of both enantiomers are shown in Fig. 5, 6, 7 and 8. Figure 5: Peak Profile Enantiomer 1 Figure 6: Peak Profile Enantiomer 2 Figure 7: Peak Purity Enantiomer 1 Figure 8: Peak Purity Enantiomer 2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Validation of the method The developed method for the assay of venlafaxine has been validated as per the current ICH Q2 (R1) guidelines.[11] Analytical parameters The development of NP-UFLC method for the determination of enantiomers has received a considerable attention in recent past because of its importance in the quality control of drugs and drug products. The assay of venlafaxine hydrochloride enantiomers was resolved with good accuracy. The retention time (tR) of R- venlafaxine hydrochloride and S- venlafaxine hydrochloride were found to be 4.5 ±0.2 min and 5.3 ±0.3 min, respectively. A typical chromatogram of R-Venlafaxine hydrochloride and S- venlafaxine hydrochloride is shown in Figure 3. Tailing factor for both R-venlafaxine hydrochloride and S-venlafaxine hydrochloride was found to be 1.1 and 0.8 respectively. The calibration curve was constructed by plotting the peak areas against the concentration of R-and S-venlafaxine hydrochloride in 5-30  µg mL-1 were shown in the Figure 4. It was found to be linear with a correlation coefficient of 0.9971 for R-venlafaxine hydrochloride and 0.9992 for S-venlafaxine hydrochloride, the r epresentative linear regression equation being y = 10507X +2467.1 and y = 10654X +2065.8 for both the enantiomers respectively. The slope, y-intercept, and their standard deviations evaluated are presented in Table 1. Table 1: Regression and sensitivity parameters of enantiomer-1 and enantiomer-2 Accuracy and precision The amount of venlafaxine hydrochloride enantiomers in the matrix was calculated using following formula. % Recovery = T-A /SÃâ€"100 T–total amount of drug estimated, A-initial amount of drug in the tablet powder and S- amount of pure drug added. The results revealed (Table 2), high recovery of Venlafaxine hydrochloride enantiomers, indicating that the proposed method for the determination of venlafaxine hydrochloride enantiomers in the tablet is highly accurate. The intraday and inter day percentage relative standard deviation values were shown in Table 3. These values were within the standard limits. Table 2: Accuracy data of enantiomer-1 and enantiomer-2 Mean value of six determinations Table 3: Precision data of enantiomer-1 and enantiomer-2 Limit of detection and limit of quantification Limit of detection can be calculated using the following equation according to ICH guidelines: LOD = 3.3 x N/S LOQ = 10 x N/S where N is the standard deviation of peak areas of the drug and S is the slope of the corresponding calibration curve. The results are shown in Table 1. Assay of the drug The chiral NP-HPLC method developed in the present investigation was used to quantify venlafaxine hydrochloride enantiomers in tablet dosage forms. The obtained results are given in Tables 4. The average drug content was found to be 10.047 mg for R-venlafaxine hydrochloride and 9.978 mg for S-venlafaxine hydrochloride of the labelled amount in 25mg of racemic venlafaxine hydrochloride, respectively. Table 4: Assay of Venlafaxine Robustness of the method and stability of the solution The robustness of an analytical procedure has been defined by the ICH as a â€Å"measure of its capacity to remain unaffected by small, but deliberate variations in method parameters. The most important aspect of robustness is to develop methods that develop methods that allow for expected variations in method parameters. According to ICH guidelines, robustness should be considered early in the development stage of a method. The typical variations studied under this parameter are flow rate, wavelength and mobile phase composition. The results are tabulated in Table 5. Table 5: Robustness data of enantiomer-1 and enantiomer-2 CONCLUSION A simple, rapid and normal phase chiral UFLC method has been developed and validated for the enantiomeric separation of venlafaxine in tablet formulation. This method is precise, accurate, robust, and specific. Satisfactory results were obtained from the validation of the method. The short retention time (4.5 min for enantiomer 1 and 5.3 for enantiomer 2) obtained provides rapid determination of venlafaxine, which is significant for its routine analysis in quality control. The method exhibits an excellent performance in terms of sensitivity and robust. The experimental results of the present study showed that the proposed NP-UFLC method is simple, specific, precise, sensitive, rapid and accurate and is useful for separation of venlafaxine hydrochloride enantiomers in its pharmaceutical formulation. References Yardley JP, Husbands GE, Stack G, Butch J, Bicksler J, Moyer JA, Muth EA, Andree T, Fletcher H, James MNG, Sielecki AR 2-Phenyl- 2-(1-hydroxycycloalkyl)ethylamine derivatives: synthesis and antidepressant activity. J Med Chem 1990;33:2899–2905. Wang CP, Howell SR, Scatina J, Sisenwine SF, The disposition of venlafaxine enantiomers in dogs, rats and humans receiving venlafaxine. Chirality 1992;4:84–90. Ault A Big pharma is increasingly in getting a piece of the generic pie. The Scientist, 2005;19:36–38. Agranat I, Caner H, Caldwell J Putting chirality to work: the strategy of chiral switches. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2002;1:753–768. Arina V, Reeves JT, Senanayake CH, Song JJ, Asymmetric synthesis of active pharmaceutical ingredients. Chem Rev 2006;106 : 2734–2793. Ruffolo RR Chirality in ÃŽ ± and ÃŽ ²-adrenoceptor agonists and antagonists. Tetrahedron 1991;47:9953–9980. Hutt AJ. Drug chirality and its pharmacological consequences. In Smith HJ, editor. Introduction to the principles of drug design and action, 4th ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2006. Pg no: 117–183. Fanali S, Cotichini V, Porra` R Analysis of venlafaxine by capillary zone electrophoresis. J Capillary Electrophor 1997;4:21–26. Caccamese S, Biance S, Carter GT, Direct high performance liquid chromatography separation and 11 analogues using amylose derivated stationary phase, Chirality 2009; 21: 569-577. Anderson S. Preparative chiral chromatography. A powerful and efficient tool in drug discovery. In: Subramanian G, editor. Chiral separation techniques, 3rd ed. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH; 2007. Pgno: 585–600. 1

Total Quality Management (TQM)

Total Quality Management (TQM) Total Quality Management (TQM) is a strategy that embodies the belief that the management process must focus on integrating the customer – driven quality throughout an organisation (Stah, 2002). It stresses continuous improvement of product quality and service delivery while taking into cognisance the reality that in order to achieve this goal, employee relations needs to be equally addressed, as the customer cannot get the satisfactory service delivery from ill- motivated employees (Lewis, 2004) The philosophy underlying the implementation of a TQM strategy is to see organisational customers and clients as the vital key to organisational success. Organisations with TQM strategy see their business through the eyes of their customers and clients and then measure their organisations performance against customer/client expectations (Fran, 2002). It therefore follows that organisations that want to be successful with the implementation of TQM strategy must evaluate its operations through the eyes of its customers b y strengthening and exploring all avenues including the people (employees)that make up the organisational structure(Stah,2002). According to Balogun and Hope-Hailey (2008), strategy should be seen as a system/process, that should be able to engender in the employees a culture of total commitment to the vision and mission of the organisation, and thus, a functional strategy that embodies the collective contribution of various components that make up the organisational hierarchy should be such that compliment each other in the implementation of a strategy. For a strategy to accomplish the desired goals and objectives of an organisation, effective strategy implementation mechanisms should be put in place and one of the most potent ways for achieving this is by exploiting the internal capabilities of the organisation in the form of its employees as a veritable asset while encompassing various HRM initiatives, such as recruitment and selection, training and development, reward systems, performance appraisal , the need for enhanced employee voice systems , employee engagement and greater line manager involvement wi th management ,because they should be seen as a bridge between the employees and management for enhanced psychological contract, which will in turn facilitate greater employee commitment (Murphy et al, 2001). Quality products or services need not only to conform to consumers requirements; the product/service must be acceptable. Effective TQM strategy entails that the product/service must go beyond acceptability for a given price range. For example, rather leaving customers/clients satisfied that nothing went wrong with the product or service, a product/service should give the customers/clients some delightful surprises, or provide unexpected benefits (Collard, 2001). This means, therefore, that product/service quality assurance requires more than just meeting customers/clients minimum standards. The level of product quality is the degree, to which a product/service is equal to or greater than customers/clients expectations, That is LPQ > CE Where LPQ = Level of Product Quality, and CE = customer/client expectation. Thus, for organisations who desire to have TQM strategy in place and make it work effectively, should as a matter of principle endeavour to be positively disposed to the idea of quality management philosophy in their organisation. According to Haigh and Morris (2002), quality management is an ingredient towards adequate quality delivery to customers .Quality management involves: management systems, delivery, quality, cost, technology and of course the employees, because according to Donaldson, (2001), no matter how perfect a strategy might be, it depends on people for implementation. All these various components of quality management when effectively harnessed will result in customer satisfaction; where the intention is not to stop at a point in the process of implementation, but rather a continuous improvement of the mechanism for a sustainable competitive advantage (SCA), through the use of employees as organisations effective internal assets for a successful implementation (Haigh and Morris, 2002).This can be further understood with the diagram below   FIGURE 1: COMPONENTS OF QUALITY IMPROVEMENT (HAIGH AND MORRIS,2002) People Dedication and commitment from the employees, by means of well established voice systems and employee engagement. Adequate tools to do the work effectively and efficiently, an enabling environment, and training. Team approach to management policies and procedures for strategic implementation. Quality No compromise alternative when aiming at quality because the outcome will definitely tell , ‘the customer knows it when he sees it’ Delivery Customers should be able to receive products/service, when they want it. Management systems Understanding variation and effective development of human resource capacity utilisation. Constancy of purpose and direction Preventing error margin rather than detecting errors in quality delivery Pride of workmanship Problem solving Technology This involves research and continuous development in terms of product/service design. Up to date with contemporary manufacturing and service capabilities. Cost Efficient and competitive production system for good products/services Continuous cost improvement for the benefit of the customers (customer loyalty) as well as other associated costs like overhead costs associated with running the organisation. Thus, from the foregoing, a number of issues can be associated with the implementation of an effective TQM strategy, but as stated by Stanford, (2005) succour lies in the ability of managers to adhere to these under mentioned twelve elements: Quality awareness Effective management leadership style Organising for quality improvement Creating a participative environment by means of employee involvement and participation and employee engagement. Problem prevention and solving. Training for quality improvement Involvement of every function(e.g. front line leaders) at levels Customer (employees as internal customers) and supplier involvement within and around the organisation. Measurement of Quality performance Continuous appraisal of measurement system for sustainability. Recognition for achievement/excellence. Continuous improvement. Although all these twelve elements may seem too tasking at the beginning, a committed manager will appreciate how mutually important and inter-related all these elements and their recognition is vital for a successful implementation of TQM strategy. Various proponents of TQM strategy see it from different angles, right from the early works of Crosby(1979,1984,1989), Deming(1986,1994), Feigenbaum(1991), Juran(1988), Juran and Gryna(1993)and Ishikawa(1985), but central to their beliefs and working methods, is providing quality delivery through people .TQM begins with education and ends with education, and so crucial is the role of the employee in seeing to its successful implementation, because, when employees are aware of what is required of them in the process through effective voice system and engagement, they become highly motivated and committed to its actualization, (Dale, 1994). TQM should go farther than production operations/activities and involve every employee in the organisation. More often than not, companies that have failed in the implementation of TQM strategy fail not because they desire to fail in strategy implementation but rather, because of the emphasis laid at the door step of the ‘hard’ aspect o f the organisation such as costs and production performance, thus living little or no significant room for the ‘soft’ people centred values of an organisation which encompasses employee involvement, participation, commitment and engagement (Slerming, 2007). For TQM to be effective, managers have to take into proper perspective the relevance of the workforce that make up the organisational structure, as no organisation exists to carry out business operations/activities without employees (Carol et al.2006). People are the effective tools management can readily use in transforming /implementing strategic choices(Edwards, 2005) and as Guest (1987) puts it â€Å"because they are the most variable, and the least easy to understand and control of all management resources, effective utilisation of human resources is likely to give organisations a significant competitive advantage. The human resources dimension must therefore be fully integrated into the strategic planning process†. The above quote by Guest (1987) is aptly correct and relevant, if organisations are to attain the goals and objectives required of them, so as to justify the huge financial commitment by owners of business like the investors (shareholders) and even joint stakeholders in the operations of the business, for example the suppliers, regulators, customers, employees and communities they operate, because apart from justifying what is expected of them, TQM as a strategy allows and build in the employees the following: A decentralisation of decision-making responsibility to well trained problem solving labour force, that is , it provides an avenue for the employees of an organisation to participate in decision- making about how the business operates, and this can further improve relationships, develop trust and confidence as well as facilitate co-operative activity (Druker, 2008). Methodologically improving the quality of all organisational processes and strategies from an internal and external customer perspective, because with TQM, it helps with building collective responsibility, aid personal development and build confidence, develop problem solving skills and also facilitate employees awareness of quality improvement potential, leading to behavioural and attitudinal changes(Farnham, 2000). A combined emphasis on both incremental continuous total quality improvement and break through strategies, because TQM as a strategy encourages the employees to improve operating effectiveness as employees work in a common direction and thus, foster a change in management style and culture(Fullan,2003). A reasonable focus on the customer, both in setting strategic objectives and in building organisational routines that link as many units and levels in the firms as possible to identifying and meeting customer needs, wants, desires and expectations, and this can only be achievable with the enhancement of employees morale within and around the organisation ,(Simons, 2000). A linkage of reward and measurement systems, both formal and informal, to support these new directions, because TQM builds in the employee the ability to solve problems to be able to align his/her personal needs, wants and desires with that of the organisation (Green et al, 2003). TQM AND EMPLOYEES: THE USE OF HRM PRACTICES AND INITIATIVES Every employee in an organisation should contribute reasonably to quality improvement and satisfaction of customers’/clients’ needs and wants (Collard, 2001). For organisations that practice TQM strategy, the manufacturing department orientation, for example, towards lowest-cost productivity should synchronise with the marketing commitment to market quality products at acceptable prices. The idea that quality improvement is every employees responsibility should permeate throughout the organisation, so that advertising, human resource, order-processing, production, delivery, and other organic functional areas of the organisations’ business will be in harmony. This will eliminate or reduce the problem of sub-optimisation associated with departmental excellence at the detriment of organisational excellence (Aluko et al, 2000). The idea should be top-down and bottom-up approach policy by management so as to allow for open line of communication within employees and between management. One way of achieving this, is by means of HRM practices and initiatives in the implementation of the strategy through training, learning and continuous development of the employee, recruitment and selection, reward system, succession planning and engendering employee voice culture, where they will be allowed to air their opinion on ways of moving the organisation forward for better growth and development (Lewis, 2004),because according to Murphy et al,( 2001), an engaged employee is the satisfied employee ,and a satisfied employee, is happy and able to deliver and meet set targets. Professional development is particularly crucial for employees of any modern organisation that aims to be competitive in business, by satisfying the customers through quality delivery of products and services (Kremetik, 2004). Practices and initiativ es of HRM is by no means, an invaluable instrument in achieving a successful implementation of TQM strategy. In order to be abreast with the current trends in the ever dynamic business environment, it is pertinent that organisations invest in their workforce who will see to the implementation of TQM as a strategy that allow employees the opportunity to be aware of new trends and development in their fields (Collinson et al, 2003). Purcell et al. (2003) research, established the link between people and organizational performance. According to Purcell et al. (2003), by providing employees with the necessary training, their skill and motivation levels will increase, thus leading to enhanced performance within the organization. There is the need for line managers to be actively involved and committed to the development of employees, to enhance a strategic development, say in the area of training, learning and development (TLD) Garavan (2007). This is because, line managers are better placed to understand the needs of both organizations and employees, so, it is ideal for line managers to have greater involvement, by aligning individual needs to organizational needs, so as to ensure that TLD is more strategic, helping to encourage vertical integration (Kremetik, 2004). For organizations to fulfill their vision and mission, front line leaders have to ensure that employees are clear about their roles and how it fits w ith the overall organizational objective. This can be done by reinforcing the concept of the golden thread, Martin and Jackson, (2005) ensuring the strategic link is maintained. According to Morgan, (2000), organizations have to take into cognisance, the employee aspect of the enterprise, because, they enable it to thrive financially, through the services that they render. Hence, there is the need for open line of communication, at all levels within the organisation. For TQM to take firm root in an organization as a strategy that can contribute to improving performance of an organization through quality delivery of products and services, it has to be backed up with Ability, Motivation and Opportunity(AMO) as postulated by Purcell et al,2003; because when employees are equipped with the skills and knowledge to do their jobs, the result is commitment and discretionary behaviour which are necessary ingredients to achieve high performance and turn skills into effective action. TQM strategy can be enhanced when using the AMO model (Purcell et al. 2003) and here, employees must have the ability, opportunity and motivation required to enable them do their work effectively and efficiently. However it relies heavily on the role of line managers, and in this case, since line managers are responsible for people management, they have to get more involved with their employees’ development and provide them with the three important aspects of the AMO model. Trust and confidence, resulting from psychological contract are ingredients that are needed for a greater involvement of employees in the implementation of TQM processes. FIGURE 2 People and Performance Model (Purcell et al., 2003) From the diagram above, it highlights some of the main domains of HRM practice which are in the areas of training and development, performance appraisal, recruitment and selection amongst others. The link between these domains, when harmonized, will ultimately result in better optimization of human resources (employees) in an organisation. When the employees are given the necessary motivation and skills which they will acquire through the training and management development programmes by management of organisations, the staff will in turn be motivated and committed to give in their utmost best while seizing every opportunity to demonstrate to the management as well as customers of the organisation that a strategy that is people oriented and participative to employees will promote growth and development in an organization, Purcell et al.,(2003),this of course will only be possible with effective collaboration with a functional line management. What this model tend to demonstrate, is t hat teamwork, opportunity to participate, pay satisfaction, open communication between management and employees, enhanced career development will give the employees a sense of organisational commitment, well motivated staff strength and job satisfaction which ultimately will lead to greater performance outcomes and effective human resources capacity utilization(Grant, 2008)..Organizations that allow their employees to practice their profession to the point of attaining the highest position available in the organization, will certainly get the best out of their employees, knowing fully well that climbing up to the highest position in terms of hierarchy will not be compromised as this practice is also embedded in TQM strategy (Donaldson, 2001).The psychological contract is the bond existing between the employer and the employees; it says much about the trust and cordiality that exist between both parties i.e. the employer on one hand and the employee at the other side (Druker, 2008).T he psychological contract â€Å"both fill the perceptual gaps in the employment relationship and shapes day-to-day employee behaviour in ways that cannot necessarily be discerned from a written contract†, (Rousseau and Ho 2000 pp 476). According to Gyelan and Waldman, (2005), embedded in psychological contract is the inevitable reward of use of discretionary behaviour by the employees. Confidence building and trust in the management by the employees will bring about this development, in order for the workforce of an organization to be whole heartedly involved in the day to day operations of an organization. It is only in an atmosphere of camaraderie that trust and confidence can be established, Geary,( 2003); thus, for organizations to succeed with the implementation of TQM strategy, HRM practices and initiatives, that allow for an atmosphere of psychological contract to be entrenched in its body of policies, should be allowed to flourish, so as to facilitate the linkage between psychological contract and the use of discretionary behaviour.An employee that is allowed freedom of choice in using his/her discretionary behaviour as encouraged by the implementation of TQM by seeing the employee as the internal customer, and not necessarily adhering to all rules as directed by management hook-line and sinker, will definitely give his/her best to an organization, because the phobia of high handedness which inevitably leads to human resource capacity under utilization of employees and poor performance from above management when eliminated, will allow for greater performance from employees, Gran t,( 2008) and thus, the idea behind AMO(Ability, Motivation and Opportunity) as postulated by Purcell et al.,(2003) would have been achieved, because, within the AMO model lies the desire to see employees not being bossed into a tight corner of having to implement all that management of organisations have to say to their employees but having the freedom to exercise their innate knowledge, which of course can only be demonstrated and made manifest, when given the necessarily opportunity and motivation to do so. THE ROLE OF QUALITY IMPROVEMENT TEAMS IN TQM STRATEGY One of the major obstacles that have bedeviled the successful implementation of TQM is the non – recognition of quality teams in organizations in the quest for a successful strategy that will lift the organization above its competitors (Stanford, 2005). Team effectiveness is crucial to the implementation of TQM because the development of people and their involvement in the operations of an organization through teamwork is very essential ,and for it not to be seen as such ,will only ruin the collective effort of inputs towards the actualization of a functional quality delivery strategy like the TQM(Lewis,2004) Quality improvement teams cuts across employees of organizations, representatives of customers and suppliers with a major objective of meeting the set target of achieving quality. In doing this, it is pertinent to note that certain criteria have to be fulfilled in order to get the desired result from a quality improvement team, since it embraces almost all the stakeholders that lay claim to a business, and these criteria, according to Geirhybein (2004) include choosing the leader and members of the team. In doing this, the team leader must: ââ€"  Possess effective Leadership Behaviour ââ€"  Possess the attributes of effective conflict management ââ€"  Should have the ability of encouraging innovation ââ€"  Have adequate knowledge of effective meeting management ââ€"  Manage and send out schedule of events and activities. ââ€"  Make certain that the team members are conversant with the modus operandi of team meetings/activities. ââ€"  Endeavour to make certain that meeting venues are secured well ahead of time. ââ€"  Engage in meeting with front line managers on favourable times for team meetings. ââ€"  Should be prompt and alert to time. ââ€"  Ability to record activities of team meetings in minutes as well as collation of data. ââ€"  Sets an agreed time for the next meeting as well as communicates minutes and ensure that action is taken for matters raised. ââ€"  Ability to identify training needs of the quality team in addition to be a good contributor and listener, and this can be achieved by being dedicated to the intended purpose of the team through effective commitment. Similarly, Geirhybein (2004) suggested what members need to have in order to be effective in quality delivery teams: ââ€"  Members must be willing, not forced or coerced to join a quality team for the fun of it. ââ€"  Members need to be passionate about what the quality team sets out to achieve at all times as the direct result of such commitment is the outright benefit of quality service. ââ€"  Members should be prepared to share their experiences with the team leader as well as among themselves, for the overall benefit of the team. ââ€"  Members should be able to buy into shared team vision ââ€" Present in the members should be the spirit of natural collaboration ââ€" Need to respect the views of other members when they speak, listen to them when they have issues to raise as well as, be able to communicate effectively with both the team leader and members. ââ€"  Members should equally be ready to take down minutes at the request of the team leader, be prepared to follow up actions when directed and never be afraid to say ‘I don’t understand’ when situations arise . ââ€"  Members need also to be able to contribute meaningfully to discussions on the floor during meetings as well as being effective listeners. Quality improvement initiatives AMO(Ability, Motivation and Opportunity) as exemplified in the work of Purcell et al.( 2003) can serve as a leverage for the implementation of a TQM system. can be strengthened by the basic application of principles of motivation, especially the the recognition of team achievements as against those of individual employees, for team efforts, are crucial in driving the process of TQM. The HRM department is in a vantage (Fran, (2002). INSTITUTING TQM CULTURE IN ORGANISATIONS: EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT People can be better managed to embrace TQM by institutionalizing TQM organizational culture in the employees, so as to be able to deliver quality products and services to customers, Collinson et al, (2003). Human resource management can play a crucial role in the implementation of TQM strategy. HR managers or practitioners are responsible for recruiting and selecting high-quality employees, the continuous training and development of these employees, and the creation and sustenance of reward systems. Therefore, TQM sees to the control of processes that are pivotal to the accomplishment of cultural changes often required for TQM to be successfully implemented, Haigh and Morris, (2002). Directing the TQM cultural development initiatives to the organisations’ conditions is important in subduing opposition According to De Wit and Mayers, (2005),. Engendering trust and confidence through an open interchange of purposeful ideas can help eliminate. This can provide the building block for all employees to be trained to see their colleagues in other divisions as equal internal customers to the organisation. This is another avenue for HRM to highlight this new outlook by example. Through this means, that is, focusing on satisfying the needs and wants of the customer first and foremost, HRM can institute A major function of HRM’s expertise is its capability to scrutinize and provide assessment for employee attitudes. This expertise can be significantly essential in driving the process for a proper implementation of TQM, since getting it right from the onset (conceptualization stage) entails having adequate data/information about current performance level. Therefore, a preliminary action is to implement an employee assessment, targeting two prime areas. One requires the identification o f the difficult parts of organizations’ current operations, where innovations in quality can have the most significant impact on an organizations’ performance level. The other part, targets the perceptions and attitudes of employees towards quality as a fundamental issue, so as to ensure that, the implementation of TQM can be revitalized, for better effectiveness and efficiency, Collinson et al.,( 2003). Achieving assistance from other divisions in an organization in the use of surveys to a great extent depends largely on their perception of HRMs position ensure that HRM is not having an over bearing influence on other departmental functions, but rather, to be seen as an important ally in making their own quality improvements. Achieving this status, can be accomplished in the participative nature of the TQM philosophy by involving other divisions in the organization, towards the development of the survey instrument to be used. This involvement begins the process of carrying each division in the organization along, so as to see TQM as a strategy to be embraced by all employees of an organization (Haigh and Morris, 2002). REFERENCES Aluko, O.,Gbadamosi, I., Osuagwu, L., (2000) Business Policy and Strategy, Lagos, Remof Themes Publishers Antonioni, T., (2004) The Bounaryless Organisation: Breaking the Chain of Organisational Structure, London, Pitman Publishing. Balogun, J. and Hope-Hailey,V., (2008) Exploring Strategic Change, 3rd edition, Harlow, Pearson Education Limited. Campbell, H., N., (2006) Management Theory and Total Quality: Improving Research and Practice Through Theory Development, New York, Free Press. Cardy ,G., (2006) Employee involvement as a Pre-requisite to Reduce Worker’s Compensation Costs, Review of Business, Vol.23, No.2, pp12 – 16 Cardy,G. and Dobbins, L., S., (2004) Corporate Management, Governance, and Ethics Best Practices, Human Resource Management, Vol.32, pp 283 – 297 Carol. L. McWilliam,M Catherine, W., (2006) Implementing organizational change in health and social services , Journal of Organizational Change ManagementVol.19, Issue 2 pp119 – 135,available online atwww.sciencedirect.com, accessed 8, June, 2009 Collard, R., C.,(2001) Total Quality: Success Through People, London, 1PM Collinson, H., Work Motivation, London, Sage. Collinson,M., Edwards, P. and Rees, C.,(2003) Involving Employees in Total Quality Management, London, Department of Trade and Industry, available online at www.sciencedirect.com, accessed 10, June, 2009 Dale, B.,G., (1994) Managing Quality, 2nd edition, London, Prentice Hall Davies, M., B., (2007) Key Concepts in Social Research Methods, New York, Palgrave, Macmillan LTD De wit, K. and Mayers, J., S., (2005) Contemporary Strategy Analysis, 4th edition, London, Routledge Donaldson, (2001) The Contingency Theory of Organisations, London, Sage Druker, J., (2008) ‘Wages System’, in White, G. and Druker, J. (eds) Reward Management: A Critical text, 2nd edition, London, Routledge. Edwards, M.R., (2005) ‘Employer and Employee branding: HR or PR?’ in S .Bach (ed.) Managing Human Resources: Personnel Management in Transition, Malden, Blackwell. Farnham, D., (20

The Myth of Rape Culture in America Essay -- Rape Culture Essays

â€Å"Rape is as American as apple pie,† says blogger Jessica Valenti. She and other feminists describe our society as a â€Å"rape culture† where violence against women is almost invisible. According to feminists, films, magazines, fashion, books, music, and humor cooperate in conveying the message that women are there to be used, abused and exploited.(Kitchens, 2015) Rape culture, which was coined as a culture during the second wave of feminism during the early 1970’s and was, according to the encyclopedia of rape, â€Å"often used by feminists to describe contemporary American culture as a whole.† Rape culture, by definition though, is â€Å"a culture in which rape and other sexual violence (usually against women and gender diverse peoples ) are common and in which prevalent attitudes, norms, practices, and media condone, normalize, excuse, or encourage sexualized violence† (qtd. in University Of Michigan Women’s Center). At its earliest beginnings, rape culture was an epidemic without a name. However, today, in 21st century America, one must wonder, why is this even still an issue? Furthermore, one must deliberately consider just why rape culture only applies to women as victims of sexual violence instead of people of sexual violence. Men, for example, are not regarded as victims, ever. Apparently, men cannot be sexu ally assaulted. Rape culture allows for â€Å"gender diverse peoples† but they’re certainly not talking about men. Unless of course, those men just happen to dress as women and are raped because they are mistaken for women. But you see, therein another can of worms is opened, because it specifically relates to women and people who look like women. Sounds a bit ridiculous to me. I can’t remember a time when rape was ever a parlor joke in... ...Time.com Web. 23 Nov 2015 http://time.com/30545/its-time-to-end-rape-culture-hysteria/ Morber, Jenny. â€Å"What Science Says About Arousal During Rape.† Popsci.com. Popular Science, n.d. Web. 16 Nov. 2015. http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2013-05/science-arousal-during-rape â€Å"R., K†. â€Å"Prison Rape: A Silent Epidemic.† Torture and abuse 3.3 (2001): 16-18. PSJ. Safety and Justice, 1 Oct. 2001. Web. 21 Nov. 2015. http://www.safetyandjustice.org/node/492 United States of America. U.S. Department of Justice. National Institute of Justice and Centers For Disease Control & Prevention. Who Are the Victims? RAINN. RAINN, n.d. Web. 21 Nov. 2015 http://www.rainn.org/get-information/statistics/sexual-assault-victims/ â€Å"Women’s Center.† Womens Center. The University of Michigan, n.d. Web. 16 Nov. 2015.

depression :: essays research papers

Om depression Psykiska tecken pà ¥ depression Mà ¥nga personer tror att de aldrig kommer drabbas av depression, men sà ¥ à ¤r det inte, vem som helst i vilken som helst à ¥lder kan drabbas av depression. Denna sjukdom à ¤r inget som de flesta egentligen vill prata om, utan det à ¤r kanske nà ¥got som man skà ¤ms à ¶ver. Psykiska sjukdomar har dessvà ¤rre i alla tider varit en negativ stà ¤mpel. Men en viktig sak att veta à ¤r att depression à ¤r en av de vanligaste sjukdomarna i Sverige och det gà ¥r att bli frisk. Ungefà ¤r 4 - 5 % av Sveriges befolkning har i vuxen à ¥lder, idag en depression som behà ¶ver behandling. Det finns olika typer av depressioner. Egentlig depression, melankoli, dystymi, och manodepressiv sjukdom à ¤r de vanligaste depressionsdiagnoserna. Alla mà ¤nniskor kan ibland kà ¤nna sig ledsna och nere, men detta à ¤r inte depression, detta à ¤r nà ¥got som drabbar alla i và ¥rt dagliga liv. Nà ¤r man à ¤r sà ¥ deprimerad sà ¥ att man inte ser nà ¥gon utvà ¤g och allt kà ¤nns svart och meningslà ¶st, dà ¥ det pà ¥verkar và ¥ra kà ¤nslor tankar och handlingar. Dà ¥ har man en depression. Depressioner kan kà ¤nnetecknas av nedstà ¤mdhet, hopplà ¶shet, trà ¶tthet, glà ¤djelà ¶shet, allmà ¤nt ointresse, hà ¤mning av olika aktiviteter, sjà ¤lvmordstankar och i svà ¥ra fall sjà ¤lvmord. Den allvarligaste depressionen à ¤r den djupa depressionen eller melankoli. Normal nedstà ¤mdhet brukar alla mà ¤nniskor klara av, hantera och bearbeta. Ärftliga faktorer och tidigare erfarenheter pà ¥verkar dock và ¥rat sà ¤tt att reagera och hur sà ¥rbara vi à ¤r. Det finns emellertid ett antal depressionstillstà ¥nd som à ¤r svà ¥rare och krà ¤ver bà ¥de medicinsk och psykologisk behandling. De vanligaste symtomen vid depression à ¤r: Nedstà ¤mdhet Avsaknad av glà ¤dje och intresse fà ¶r vanliga aktiviteter Aptit- och viktfà ¶rà ¤ndringar Sà ¶mnstà ¶rningar Fà ¶rà ¤ndrad motorik Trà ¶tthet och kà ¤nslomà ¤ssig frusenhet Nedvà ¤rderande sjà ¤lvbild Koncentrationssvà ¥righeter och beslutsvà ¥nda Tankar pà ¥ dà ¶den, sjà ¤lvmordstankar och sjà ¤lvmordsfà ¶rsà ¶k Sexuella stà ¶rningar, à ¥ngest och à ¶verdriven misstà ¤nksamhet mot omgivningen Depressiva sjukdomar à ¤r mycket vanliga och kan drabba vem som helst och i alla à ¥ldrar. Enligt WHO à ¤r depression pà ¥ và ¤g att bli en av và ¤rldens stà ¶rsta folksjukdomar. Cirka 500 000 svenskar berà ¤knas just nu ha en depression som krà ¤ver medicinsk behandling. Fyra olika diagnoser pà ¥ depression Fà ¶rstà ¤mningssyndrom kallas ibland ocksà ¥ fà ¶r affektiva sjukdomar och à ¤r den sammanfattade benà ¤mningen fà ¶r de tillstà ¥nd som à ¤r kopplade till fà ¶rà ¤ndringar i stà ¤mningslà ¤get. Hit rà ¤knas t.ex. egentlig depression, dystymi, och manodepressiv sjukdom. Là ¤kare delar in depressionen after dess svà ¥righetsgrad och hur den yttrar sig. Hà ¤r nedanfà ¶r à ¤r de vanligaste depressionsdiagnoserna. Egentlig depression Är det som beskriver bà ¤st det man menar nà ¤r man pratar om depression. Fà ¶r att stà ¤lla denna diagnos krà ¤vs det att symtomen nedstà ¤mdhet och/eller minskat intresse fà ¶r omgivningen skall finnas under stà ¶rre delen av dagen, sà ¥ gott som varje dag under minst tvà ¥ veckor. Sjukdomen kan vara av là ¤tt, mà ¥ttlig eller av svà ¥r karaktà ¤r, och vid de svà ¥rare depressionerna sà ¥ anvà ¤nds begreppet melankoli. En del personer som drabbats av depressioner varar det under mycket là ¥ng

Presonal Writing: My First Impression Of My Teacher Miss Vicki :: essays research papers

Presonal Writing: My First Impression of My Teacher Miss Vicki   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My first impression of Miss Vicki was a highly authorative figure towering over me. Her voice boomed and the earth shook whenever she marched. She seemed like such an unapproachable and distant person. That was in the first year of High School. She was my Literature teacher then.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During my first year in school, she struck terror in my heart. And everyone else's of course. The mere mention of her name made the most unruly classes silent. The birds stopped screeching. Even the earth felt still. The omniscent presence of rumours stating that she didn't like Junior High students was not much of a help.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nevertheless, the 2 years of Junior High passed by rather quickly. Soon, I was promoted to Senior High class. I had worked hard and gotten the subject combination that I wished for. Together with a bunch of old friends, I soon settled down in class comfortably.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As fate would have it, she was fortunate enough to be my form teacher that year. I almost choked in alarm when I heard the news. This time round, however, I resolved not to cower in terror whenever she was near. I decided to face the fact that we were going to meet each other for the next 365 days. Instead of trying too hard to lick her boots, I tried my best to be my natural self in front of her.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Still, I could not shake off the ice-cold image that she possessed in my heart. True, her corney jokes sometimes sent me into frolicking laughter, yet at other times these jokes simply fell flat the moment she uttered them. My lovely class, however was always ready to laugh at the right time and place of her amusing stories. Afterall, we would not want to run the risk of her temper erupting in front of us like Mount Saint Helens spewing molten rock and

Game Addiction Essay

Gamer Addiction is an obsession with video game playing that usually begins in elementary and middle school. By college, the individual progresses from simple to elaborate games and the student is game-hooked. An activity becomes an addiction when it is used to change an individual’s mood. It becomes abuse when it interferes with ‘one’s work or school, or disrupts personal or family relationships, and becomes increasingly necessary to feel good’ (Orzack, 2005a, p. 1). Addiction takes away from life and reduces motivation to do anything beyond the focus of the addiction (IGDA panel). Niolosi (2002) found that video games are part of the daily routine for 65% of American girls and 85% of American boys. NBC News ( 5-19-05 ) reported that one in eight gamers develops patterns similar to other types of addiction and abuse. Tournemillie (2002) noted that a survey of 1500 teenagers indicated 25% were compulsive video gamers. Fifty per cent of those surveyed used the word ‘addiction’ to describe a friend’s gaming behaviors. Today’s video games are available in a plethora of venues that draw individuals into the world of the game. Games are designed to keep the player riveted to action. Players experience a sense of control when they enter into the fantasy world of speed, realism, violence, new morals, and interoperability. Many games offer on-line anonymous interaction with other people; a ‘hook’ is a sense of family or belonging in the form of a pseudo persona the player develops when repeatedly playing the game. The longer the game is played, the more the pseudo persona can replace reality. – See more at: http://www. nacada. ksu. edu/Resources/Clearinghouse/View-Articles/Gamer-Addiction. aspx#sthash. zdhglFnU. dpuf.

Global Warming AD

As the suns harmful rays beam through the depleting ozone floor the globe begins to warm, terra firmas cold frosting caps die hard and soft start the elimination of life. This ad demonstrates the ca use up and effect of global warming. The population inside the lower quadrant of the hour water crackpot-skating rink is slowly getting swallowed by the sea imputable to the evanesceing trumpery caps preceding(prenominal). Within the hourglass theres textbook stating we be slowly running out of time, act instanter before its too new-fashioned. In the top of the hour glass a polar bear and penguin position upon two nearly melted ice caps.The world below has cars driving into a city promontoryed chopped d deliver trees, and a plash station. Although the ad appears to be archetype us of global warming, its in truth warning us of our give selfishness The ad uses ternion main tactics to fall upon this, presentation of text, types of images, and image paternity. The ad vertisers decided to use presentation of text in a subtle way to get their smear across. The display of the text in this ad has diminutive properties. This relates to the feeling human beings take up towards the situation of global warming.It indicates that we conveniently believe its a small growth and doesnt need to be presented as a major problem. heap evacuate the truth and would rather just pass it on to the next generation to pull off with. The use of this tactic helps sell the intellection that we argon to selfish to address the situation. however though we get to scientific try that global warming is happening, and that the polar ice caps argon dissolve, mint still put one overt want to make it an rationalize. People would rather act selfish and take down the earth past be inconvenienced and have to give up their comfortable lives.A stronger tactic apply by the advertiser is the use of types of images, which provides us with further evidence. The types of i mages used in this ad bespeak the advertisers fountainhead in a more nifty forward manner. They use the images of street lights confidential information up to a city rise of high-rises to provide us with the nonion that we hatred energy. On the sides of the road theres chopped down trees and a gas station indicating how human beings rape our body politic of its natural resources. Cars fill the street demo a luxury that pollutes and destroys the earth.All of which at a time correlates with the image of the melting polar ice caps in the top of the hourglass. Once once again it sells the idea that the ad informs us of our own selfishness. It indicates that people will do anything for their luxuries, make up if it destroys our own planet. Providing evidence that our selfishness will not let anything stand between us and the things we love, even at the highest cost. By use a less noticeable, although stronger tactic, composition of images provides us with further evidence of their strategy.Image composition is the last and strongest tactic used by the advertiser. In the top frame of the hourglass the ice cap sits in pure deplorable water. In the lower section of the hourglass the earth is being swallowed by stagnant mortal(a) water indicating the lack of life. Plus in the top frame a polar bear and a penguin sit perched anticipating their last-place moments of life as their worlds slowly melt away. As two birds hover above ground as their world disappears as well. This sells the idea by showing that people are too selfish to like not just about their own lives, but also every another(prenominal) life on this planet.Other creatures are waiver to die directly rushd by our actions. The sea water levels are going to rise while the land becomes engulfed make life on earth to diminish. And we are too selfish to look well-nigh and realize that we are destroying all habitats. just we still act like we are alone on this planet. This ad warns us of both global warming and our selfishness as human beings. By combining three tactics, presentation of text, types of images, and image composition the advertisers show us the affects of both.The use of dying animals, ill-treated natural resources, man made cars, and the melting polar ice cap allows us to see the correlation between the issue of global warming and our selfishness. The presentation of text raises the awareness of people thinking its not a major situation, thusly selling the ideas of global warming and our selfishness towards the legal opinion of global warming. Each involves us in a selfish manner and uses cause and effect to sell the product. If humans deliver being selfish and dont stop taking reward of our planet, then there will be no planet left to take advantage of.